Volume 4, 2026 – Issue 3
Primary AI Literacy Pedagogy before and after Generative AI: A Critical Review
Akorfa Aku Nyatefe 
1*, Isaac Mawuena Agbogah 2, Emmanuel Akwandoh 3, Emmanuel Yeboah 4, Enock Peprah 5, Sitsofe Akosua Nyatefe 6, and Madeakpe Gertrude Nyatefe 7
1 School of Teacher Education, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210044, China
2 School of Business, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210044, China
3,5 School of Management Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210044, China
4 Faculty of Geographical Science and Engineering, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan Province, China
6 The New Jerusalem School, Accra, Ghana
7 School of Graduate Studies, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana
* Corresponding author: nyatefeakorfa@gmail.com
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.23585274
Abstract
Two recent reviews of AI literacy in primary education closed their searches in 2024, before most classroom research on generative AI had appeared. This critical review narrows that gap. It takes the pre-2023 literature from those reviews and adds studies published through October 2026 in which children roughly aged six to twelve used generative AI tools such as ChatGPT. Twenty empirical papers are examined: eight from before 2023, two on children’s conceptions of AI, and ten on generative AI (nine independent samples). The synthesis covers pedagogical approaches, learning outcomes, assessment, and challenges. Earlier studies mostly taught children about AI, while the generative-AI studies mostly test learning with AI, so the two literatures are not directly comparable. A continuity-with-adaptation framework is offered as a hypothesis, not a finding: hands-on, teacher-guided work is the common thread, and generative AI adds the need to judge fluent but unreliable output and to attend to privacy and age limits. Controlled studies have appeared only recently, cluster in a few settings, and none of those identified report a delayed follow-up. Early childhood was found to be underexplored. The review closes with a research agenda and cautious suggestions for teachers.
Keywords: AI literacy, generative AI, primary education, ChatGPT, pedagogy
Published
2026/10/31
—
Section
Research Papers
How to Cite (APA)
16359756
{16359756:VVVIAUZZ}
1
apa
50
default
2864
https://ijtie.com/wp-content/plugins/zotpress/
%7B%22status%22%3A%22success%22%2C%22updateneeded%22%3Afalse%2C%22instance%22%3Afalse%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22request_last%22%3A0%2C%22request_next%22%3A0%2C%22used_cache%22%3Atrue%7D%2C%22data%22%3A%5B%7B%22key%22%3A%22VVVIAUZZ%22%2C%22library%22%3A%7B%22id%22%3A16359756%7D%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22creatorSummary%22%3A%22Nyatefe%20et%20al.%22%2C%22parsedDate%22%3A%222026-10-31%22%2C%22numChildren%22%3A0%7D%2C%22bib%22%3A%22%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-bib-body%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bline-height%3A%202%3B%20padding-left%3A%201em%3B%20text-indent%3A-1em%3B%26quot%3B%26gt%3B%5Cn%20%20%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-entry%26quot%3B%26gt%3BNyatefe%2C%20A.%20A.%2C%20Agbogah%2C%20I.%20M.%2C%20Akwandoh%2C%20E.%2C%20Yeboah%2C%20E.%2C%20Peprah%2C%20E.%2C%20Nyatefe%2C%20S.%20A.%2C%20%26amp%3B%20Nyatefe%2C%20M.%20G.%20%282026%29.%20Primary%20AI%20literacy%20pedagogy%20before%20and%20after%20generative%20AI%3A%20A%20critical%20review.%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3BThe%20International%20Journal%20of%20Technology%2C%20Innovation%2C%20and%20Education%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%2C%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3B4%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%283%29%2C%20334%26%23×2013%3B354.%20%26lt%3Ba%20class%3D%26%23039%3Bzp-DOIURL%26%23039%3B%20href%3D%26%23039%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.5281%5C%2Fzenodo.23585274%26%23039%3B%26gt%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.5281%5C%2Fzenodo.23585274%26lt%3B%5C%2Fa%26gt%3B%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%5Cn%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%22%2C%22data%22%3A%7B%22itemType%22%3A%22journalArticle%22%2C%22title%22%3A%22Primary%20AI%20literacy%20pedagogy%20before%20and%20after%20generative%20AI%3A%20A%20critical%20review%22%2C%22creators%22%3A%5B%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Akorfa%20Aku%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Isaac%20Mawuena%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Agbogah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Emmanuel%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Akwandoh%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Emmanuel%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Yeboah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Enock%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Peprah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Sitsofe%20Akosua%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Madeakpe%20Gertrude%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%5D%2C%22abstractNote%22%3A%22Two%20recent%20reviews%20of%20AI%20literacy%20in%20primary%20education%20closed%20their%20searches%20in%202024%2C%20before%20most%20classroom%20research%20on%20generative%20AI%20had%20appeared.%20This%20critical%20review%20narrows%20that%20gap.%20It%20takes%20the%20pre-2023%20literature%20from%20those%20reviews%20and%20adds%20studies%20published%20through%20October%202026%20in%20which%20children%20roughly%20aged%20six%20to%20twelve%20used%20generative%20AI%20tools%20such%20as%20ChatGPT.%20Twenty%20empirical%20papers%20are%20examined%3A%20eight%20from%20before%202023%2C%20two%20on%20children%5Cu2019s%20conceptions%20of%20AI%2C%20and%20ten%20on%20generative%20AI%20%28nine%20independent%20samples%29.%20The%20synthesis%20covers%20pedagogical%20approaches%2C%20learning%20outcomes%2C%20assessment%2C%20and%20challenges.%20Earlier%20studies%20mostly%20taught%20children%20about%20AI%2C%20while%20the%20generative-AI%20studies%20mostly%20test%20learning%20with%20AI%2C%20so%20the%20two%20literatures%20are%20not%20directly%20comparable.%20A%20continuity-with-adaptation%20framework%20is%20offered%20as%20a%20hypothesis%2C%20not%20a%20finding%3A%20hands-on%2C%20teacher-guided%20work%20is%20the%20common%20thread%2C%20and%20generative%20AI%20adds%20the%20need%20to%20judge%20fluent%20but%20unreliable%20output%20and%20to%20attend%20to%20privacy%20and%20age%20limits.%20Controlled%20studies%20have%20appeared%20only%20recently%2C%20cluster%20in%20a%20few%20settings%2C%20and%20none%20of%20those%20identified%20report%20a%20delayed%20follow-up.%20Early%20childhood%20was%20found%20to%20be%20underexplored.%20The%20review%20closes%20with%20a%20research%20agenda%20and%20cautious%20suggestions%20for%20teachers.%22%2C%22date%22%3A%222026-10-31%22%2C%22section%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partNumber%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partTitle%22%3A%22%22%2C%22DOI%22%3A%2210.5281%5C%2Fzenodo.23585274%22%2C%22citationKey%22%3A%22%22%2C%22url%22%3A%22https%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fijtie.com%5C%2Fwp-content%5C%2Fuploads%5C%2F2026%5C%2F10%5C%2FN40377.pdf%22%2C%22PMID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMCID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22ISSN%22%3A%222820-7521%22%2C%22language%22%3A%22%22%2C%22collections%22%3A%5B%22QWYM8LHH%22%5D%2C%22dateModified%22%3A%222026-10-30T01%3A16%3A10Z%22%7D%7D%5D%7D
Nyatefe, A. A., Agbogah, I. M., Akwandoh, E., Yeboah, E., Peprah, E., Nyatefe, S. A., & Nyatefe, M. G. (2026). Primary AI literacy pedagogy before and after generative AI: A critical review. The International Journal of Technology, Innovation, and Education, 4(3), 334–354. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.23585274
Download Citation: EndNote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)
Chicago
MLA
IEEE
Harvard
Vancouver
APA
Chicago
Chicago
MLA
IEEE
Harvard
Vancouver
APA
16359756
{16359756:VVVIAUZZ}
1
chicago-author-date
50
default
2864
https://ijtie.com/wp-content/plugins/zotpress/
%7B%22status%22%3A%22success%22%2C%22updateneeded%22%3Afalse%2C%22instance%22%3Afalse%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22request_last%22%3A0%2C%22request_next%22%3A0%2C%22used_cache%22%3Atrue%7D%2C%22data%22%3A%5B%7B%22key%22%3A%22VVVIAUZZ%22%2C%22library%22%3A%7B%22id%22%3A16359756%7D%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22creatorSummary%22%3A%22Nyatefe%20et%20al.%22%2C%22parsedDate%22%3A%222026-10-31%22%2C%22numChildren%22%3A0%7D%2C%22bib%22%3A%22%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-bib-body%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bline-height%3A%201.35%3B%20padding-left%3A%201em%3B%20text-indent%3A-1em%3B%26quot%3B%26gt%3B%5Cn%20%20%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-entry%26quot%3B%26gt%3BNyatefe%2C%20Akorfa%20Aku%2C%20Isaac%20Mawuena%20Agbogah%2C%20Emmanuel%20Akwandoh%2C%20et%20al.%202026.%20%26%23x201C%3BPrimary%20AI%20Literacy%20Pedagogy%20before%20and%20after%20Generative%20AI%3A%20A%20Critical%20Review.%26%23x201D%3B%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3BThe%20International%20Journal%20of%20Technology%2C%20Innovation%2C%20and%20Education%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%204%20%283%29%3A%20334%26%23×2013%3B54.%20%26lt%3Ba%20class%3D%26%23039%3Bzp-DOIURL%26%23039%3B%20href%3D%26%23039%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.5281%5C%2Fzenodo.23585274%26%23039%3B%26gt%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.5281%5C%2Fzenodo.23585274%26lt%3B%5C%2Fa%26gt%3B.%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%5Cn%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%22%2C%22data%22%3A%7B%22itemType%22%3A%22journalArticle%22%2C%22title%22%3A%22Primary%20AI%20literacy%20pedagogy%20before%20and%20after%20generative%20AI%3A%20A%20critical%20review%22%2C%22creators%22%3A%5B%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Akorfa%20Aku%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Isaac%20Mawuena%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Agbogah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Emmanuel%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Akwandoh%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Emmanuel%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Yeboah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Enock%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Peprah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Sitsofe%20Akosua%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Madeakpe%20Gertrude%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%5D%2C%22abstractNote%22%3A%22Two%20recent%20reviews%20of%20AI%20literacy%20in%20primary%20education%20closed%20their%20searches%20in%202024%2C%20before%20most%20classroom%20research%20on%20generative%20AI%20had%20appeared.%20This%20critical%20review%20narrows%20that%20gap.%20It%20takes%20the%20pre-2023%20literature%20from%20those%20reviews%20and%20adds%20studies%20published%20through%20October%202026%20in%20which%20children%20roughly%20aged%20six%20to%20twelve%20used%20generative%20AI%20tools%20such%20as%20ChatGPT.%20Twenty%20empirical%20papers%20are%20examined%3A%20eight%20from%20before%202023%2C%20two%20on%20children%5Cu2019s%20conceptions%20of%20AI%2C%20and%20ten%20on%20generative%20AI%20%28nine%20independent%20samples%29.%20The%20synthesis%20covers%20pedagogical%20approaches%2C%20learning%20outcomes%2C%20assessment%2C%20and%20challenges.%20Earlier%20studies%20mostly%20taught%20children%20about%20AI%2C%20while%20the%20generative-AI%20studies%20mostly%20test%20learning%20with%20AI%2C%20so%20the%20two%20literatures%20are%20not%20directly%20comparable.%20A%20continuity-with-adaptation%20framework%20is%20offered%20as%20a%20hypothesis%2C%20not%20a%20finding%3A%20hands-on%2C%20teacher-guided%20work%20is%20the%20common%20thread%2C%20and%20generative%20AI%20adds%20the%20need%20to%20judge%20fluent%20but%20unreliable%20output%20and%20to%20attend%20to%20privacy%20and%20age%20limits.%20Controlled%20studies%20have%20appeared%20only%20recently%2C%20cluster%20in%20a%20few%20settings%2C%20and%20none%20of%20those%20identified%20report%20a%20delayed%20follow-up.%20Early%20childhood%20was%20found%20to%20be%20underexplored.%20The%20review%20closes%20with%20a%20research%20agenda%20and%20cautious%20suggestions%20for%20teachers.%22%2C%22date%22%3A%222026-10-31%22%2C%22section%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partNumber%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partTitle%22%3A%22%22%2C%22DOI%22%3A%2210.5281%5C%2Fzenodo.23585274%22%2C%22citationKey%22%3A%22%22%2C%22url%22%3A%22https%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fijtie.com%5C%2Fwp-content%5C%2Fuploads%5C%2F2026%5C%2F10%5C%2FN40377.pdf%22%2C%22PMID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMCID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22ISSN%22%3A%222820-7521%22%2C%22language%22%3A%22%22%2C%22collections%22%3A%5B%22QWYM8LHH%22%5D%2C%22dateModified%22%3A%222026-10-30T01%3A16%3A10Z%22%7D%7D%5D%7D
Nyatefe, Akorfa Aku, Isaac Mawuena Agbogah, Emmanuel Akwandoh, et al. 2026. “Primary AI Literacy Pedagogy before and after Generative AI: A Critical Review.” The International Journal of Technology, Innovation, and Education 4 (3): 334–54. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.23585274.
16359756
{16359756:VVVIAUZZ}
1
modern-language-association
50
default
2864
https://ijtie.com/wp-content/plugins/zotpress/
%7B%22status%22%3A%22success%22%2C%22updateneeded%22%3Afalse%2C%22instance%22%3Afalse%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22request_last%22%3A0%2C%22request_next%22%3A0%2C%22used_cache%22%3Atrue%7D%2C%22data%22%3A%5B%7B%22key%22%3A%22VVVIAUZZ%22%2C%22library%22%3A%7B%22id%22%3A16359756%7D%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22creatorSummary%22%3A%22Nyatefe%20et%20al.%22%2C%22parsedDate%22%3A%222026-10-31%22%2C%22numChildren%22%3A0%7D%2C%22bib%22%3A%22%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-bib-body%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bline-height%3A%202%3B%20padding-left%3A%201em%3B%20text-indent%3A-1em%3B%26quot%3B%26gt%3B%5Cn%20%20%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-entry%26quot%3B%26gt%3BNyatefe%2C%20Akorfa%20Aku%2C%20et%20al.%20%26%23x201C%3BPrimary%20AI%20Literacy%20Pedagogy%20before%20and%20after%20Generative%20AI%3A%20A%20Critical%20Review.%26%23x201D%3B%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3BThe%20International%20Journal%20of%20Technology%2C%20Innovation%2C%20and%20Education%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%2C%20vol.%204%2C%20no.%203%2C%20Oct.%202026%2C%20pp.%20334%26%23×2013%3B54%2C%20%26lt%3Ba%20class%3D%26%23039%3Bzp-DOIURL%26%23039%3B%20href%3D%26%23039%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.5281%5C%2Fzenodo.23585274%26%23039%3B%26gt%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.5281%5C%2Fzenodo.23585274%26lt%3B%5C%2Fa%26gt%3B.%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%5Cn%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%22%2C%22data%22%3A%7B%22itemType%22%3A%22journalArticle%22%2C%22title%22%3A%22Primary%20AI%20literacy%20pedagogy%20before%20and%20after%20generative%20AI%3A%20A%20critical%20review%22%2C%22creators%22%3A%5B%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Akorfa%20Aku%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Isaac%20Mawuena%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Agbogah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Emmanuel%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Akwandoh%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Emmanuel%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Yeboah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Enock%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Peprah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Sitsofe%20Akosua%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Madeakpe%20Gertrude%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%5D%2C%22abstractNote%22%3A%22Two%20recent%20reviews%20of%20AI%20literacy%20in%20primary%20education%20closed%20their%20searches%20in%202024%2C%20before%20most%20classroom%20research%20on%20generative%20AI%20had%20appeared.%20This%20critical%20review%20narrows%20that%20gap.%20It%20takes%20the%20pre-2023%20literature%20from%20those%20reviews%20and%20adds%20studies%20published%20through%20October%202026%20in%20which%20children%20roughly%20aged%20six%20to%20twelve%20used%20generative%20AI%20tools%20such%20as%20ChatGPT.%20Twenty%20empirical%20papers%20are%20examined%3A%20eight%20from%20before%202023%2C%20two%20on%20children%5Cu2019s%20conceptions%20of%20AI%2C%20and%20ten%20on%20generative%20AI%20%28nine%20independent%20samples%29.%20The%20synthesis%20covers%20pedagogical%20approaches%2C%20learning%20outcomes%2C%20assessment%2C%20and%20challenges.%20Earlier%20studies%20mostly%20taught%20children%20about%20AI%2C%20while%20the%20generative-AI%20studies%20mostly%20test%20learning%20with%20AI%2C%20so%20the%20two%20literatures%20are%20not%20directly%20comparable.%20A%20continuity-with-adaptation%20framework%20is%20offered%20as%20a%20hypothesis%2C%20not%20a%20finding%3A%20hands-on%2C%20teacher-guided%20work%20is%20the%20common%20thread%2C%20and%20generative%20AI%20adds%20the%20need%20to%20judge%20fluent%20but%20unreliable%20output%20and%20to%20attend%20to%20privacy%20and%20age%20limits.%20Controlled%20studies%20have%20appeared%20only%20recently%2C%20cluster%20in%20a%20few%20settings%2C%20and%20none%20of%20those%20identified%20report%20a%20delayed%20follow-up.%20Early%20childhood%20was%20found%20to%20be%20underexplored.%20The%20review%20closes%20with%20a%20research%20agenda%20and%20cautious%20suggestions%20for%20teachers.%22%2C%22date%22%3A%222026-10-31%22%2C%22section%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partNumber%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partTitle%22%3A%22%22%2C%22DOI%22%3A%2210.5281%5C%2Fzenodo.23585274%22%2C%22citationKey%22%3A%22%22%2C%22url%22%3A%22https%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fijtie.com%5C%2Fwp-content%5C%2Fuploads%5C%2F2026%5C%2F10%5C%2FN40377.pdf%22%2C%22PMID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMCID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22ISSN%22%3A%222820-7521%22%2C%22language%22%3A%22%22%2C%22collections%22%3A%5B%22QWYM8LHH%22%5D%2C%22dateModified%22%3A%222026-10-30T01%3A16%3A10Z%22%7D%7D%5D%7D
Nyatefe, Akorfa Aku, et al. “Primary AI Literacy Pedagogy before and after Generative AI: A Critical Review.” The International Journal of Technology, Innovation, and Education, vol. 4, no. 3, Oct. 2026, pp. 334–54, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.23585274.
16359756
{16359756:VVVIAUZZ}
1
ieee
50
default
2864
https://ijtie.com/wp-content/plugins/zotpress/
%7B%22status%22%3A%22success%22%2C%22updateneeded%22%3Afalse%2C%22instance%22%3Afalse%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22request_last%22%3A0%2C%22request_next%22%3A0%2C%22used_cache%22%3Atrue%7D%2C%22data%22%3A%5B%7B%22key%22%3A%22VVVIAUZZ%22%2C%22library%22%3A%7B%22id%22%3A16359756%7D%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22creatorSummary%22%3A%22Nyatefe%20et%20al.%22%2C%22parsedDate%22%3A%222026-10-31%22%2C%22numChildren%22%3A0%7D%2C%22bib%22%3A%22%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-bib-body%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bline-height%3A%201.35%3B%20%26quot%3B%26gt%3B%5Cn%20%20%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-entry%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bclear%3A%20left%3B%20%26quot%3B%26gt%3B%5Cn%20%20%20%20%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-left-margin%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bfloat%3A%20left%3B%20padding-right%3A%200.5em%3B%20text-align%3A%20right%3B%20width%3A%201em%3B%26quot%3B%26gt%3B%5B1%5D%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-right-inline%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bmargin%3A%200%20.4em%200%201.5em%3B%26quot%3B%26gt%3BA.%20A.%20Nyatefe%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3Bet%20al.%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%2C%20%26%23x201C%3BPrimary%20AI%20literacy%20pedagogy%20before%20and%20after%20generative%20AI%3A%20A%20critical%20review%2C%26%23x201D%3B%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3BThe%20International%20Journal%20of%20Technology%2C%20Innovation%2C%20and%20Education%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%2C%20vol.%204%2C%20no.%203%2C%20pp.%20334%26%23×2013%3B354%2C%20Oct.%202026%2C%20doi%3A%2010.5281%5C%2Fzenodo.23585274.%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%5Cn%20%20%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%5Cn%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%22%2C%22data%22%3A%7B%22itemType%22%3A%22journalArticle%22%2C%22title%22%3A%22Primary%20AI%20literacy%20pedagogy%20before%20and%20after%20generative%20AI%3A%20A%20critical%20review%22%2C%22creators%22%3A%5B%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Akorfa%20Aku%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Isaac%20Mawuena%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Agbogah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Emmanuel%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Akwandoh%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Emmanuel%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Yeboah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Enock%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Peprah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Sitsofe%20Akosua%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Madeakpe%20Gertrude%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%5D%2C%22abstractNote%22%3A%22Two%20recent%20reviews%20of%20AI%20literacy%20in%20primary%20education%20closed%20their%20searches%20in%202024%2C%20before%20most%20classroom%20research%20on%20generative%20AI%20had%20appeared.%20This%20critical%20review%20narrows%20that%20gap.%20It%20takes%20the%20pre-2023%20literature%20from%20those%20reviews%20and%20adds%20studies%20published%20through%20October%202026%20in%20which%20children%20roughly%20aged%20six%20to%20twelve%20used%20generative%20AI%20tools%20such%20as%20ChatGPT.%20Twenty%20empirical%20papers%20are%20examined%3A%20eight%20from%20before%202023%2C%20two%20on%20children%5Cu2019s%20conceptions%20of%20AI%2C%20and%20ten%20on%20generative%20AI%20%28nine%20independent%20samples%29.%20The%20synthesis%20covers%20pedagogical%20approaches%2C%20learning%20outcomes%2C%20assessment%2C%20and%20challenges.%20Earlier%20studies%20mostly%20taught%20children%20about%20AI%2C%20while%20the%20generative-AI%20studies%20mostly%20test%20learning%20with%20AI%2C%20so%20the%20two%20literatures%20are%20not%20directly%20comparable.%20A%20continuity-with-adaptation%20framework%20is%20offered%20as%20a%20hypothesis%2C%20not%20a%20finding%3A%20hands-on%2C%20teacher-guided%20work%20is%20the%20common%20thread%2C%20and%20generative%20AI%20adds%20the%20need%20to%20judge%20fluent%20but%20unreliable%20output%20and%20to%20attend%20to%20privacy%20and%20age%20limits.%20Controlled%20studies%20have%20appeared%20only%20recently%2C%20cluster%20in%20a%20few%20settings%2C%20and%20none%20of%20those%20identified%20report%20a%20delayed%20follow-up.%20Early%20childhood%20was%20found%20to%20be%20underexplored.%20The%20review%20closes%20with%20a%20research%20agenda%20and%20cautious%20suggestions%20for%20teachers.%22%2C%22date%22%3A%222026-10-31%22%2C%22section%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partNumber%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partTitle%22%3A%22%22%2C%22DOI%22%3A%2210.5281%5C%2Fzenodo.23585274%22%2C%22citationKey%22%3A%22%22%2C%22url%22%3A%22https%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fijtie.com%5C%2Fwp-content%5C%2Fuploads%5C%2F2026%5C%2F10%5C%2FN40377.pdf%22%2C%22PMID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMCID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22ISSN%22%3A%222820-7521%22%2C%22language%22%3A%22%22%2C%22collections%22%3A%5B%22QWYM8LHH%22%5D%2C%22dateModified%22%3A%222026-10-30T01%3A16%3A10Z%22%7D%7D%5D%7D
[1]
A. A. Nyatefe et al., “Primary AI literacy pedagogy before and after generative AI: A critical review,” The International Journal of Technology, Innovation, and Education, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 334–354, Oct. 2026, doi: 10.5281/zenodo.23585274.
16359756
{16359756:VVVIAUZZ}
1
harvard1
50
default
2864
https://ijtie.com/wp-content/plugins/zotpress/
%7B%22status%22%3A%22success%22%2C%22updateneeded%22%3Afalse%2C%22instance%22%3Afalse%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22request_last%22%3A0%2C%22request_next%22%3A0%2C%22used_cache%22%3Atrue%7D%2C%22data%22%3A%5B%7B%22key%22%3A%22VVVIAUZZ%22%2C%22library%22%3A%7B%22id%22%3A16359756%7D%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22creatorSummary%22%3A%22Nyatefe%20et%20al.%22%2C%22parsedDate%22%3A%222026-10-31%22%2C%22numChildren%22%3A0%7D%2C%22bib%22%3A%22%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-bib-body%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bline-height%3A%201.35%3B%20%26quot%3B%26gt%3B%5Cn%20%20%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-entry%26quot%3B%26gt%3BNyatefe%2C%20A.A.%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3Bet%20al.%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%20%282026%29%20%26%23x201C%3BPrimary%20AI%20literacy%20pedagogy%20before%20and%20after%20generative%20AI%3A%20A%20critical%20review%2C%26%23x201D%3B%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3BThe%20International%20Journal%20of%20Technology%2C%20Innovation%2C%20and%20Education%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%2C%204%283%29%2C%20pp.%20334%26%23×2013%3B354.%20Available%20at%3A%20%26lt%3Ba%20class%3D%26%23039%3Bzp-DOIURL%26%23039%3B%20href%3D%26%23039%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.5281%5C%2Fzenodo.23585274%26%23039%3B%26gt%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.5281%5C%2Fzenodo.23585274%26lt%3B%5C%2Fa%26gt%3B.%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%5Cn%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%22%2C%22data%22%3A%7B%22itemType%22%3A%22journalArticle%22%2C%22title%22%3A%22Primary%20AI%20literacy%20pedagogy%20before%20and%20after%20generative%20AI%3A%20A%20critical%20review%22%2C%22creators%22%3A%5B%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Akorfa%20Aku%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Isaac%20Mawuena%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Agbogah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Emmanuel%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Akwandoh%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Emmanuel%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Yeboah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Enock%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Peprah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Sitsofe%20Akosua%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Madeakpe%20Gertrude%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%5D%2C%22abstractNote%22%3A%22Two%20recent%20reviews%20of%20AI%20literacy%20in%20primary%20education%20closed%20their%20searches%20in%202024%2C%20before%20most%20classroom%20research%20on%20generative%20AI%20had%20appeared.%20This%20critical%20review%20narrows%20that%20gap.%20It%20takes%20the%20pre-2023%20literature%20from%20those%20reviews%20and%20adds%20studies%20published%20through%20October%202026%20in%20which%20children%20roughly%20aged%20six%20to%20twelve%20used%20generative%20AI%20tools%20such%20as%20ChatGPT.%20Twenty%20empirical%20papers%20are%20examined%3A%20eight%20from%20before%202023%2C%20two%20on%20children%5Cu2019s%20conceptions%20of%20AI%2C%20and%20ten%20on%20generative%20AI%20%28nine%20independent%20samples%29.%20The%20synthesis%20covers%20pedagogical%20approaches%2C%20learning%20outcomes%2C%20assessment%2C%20and%20challenges.%20Earlier%20studies%20mostly%20taught%20children%20about%20AI%2C%20while%20the%20generative-AI%20studies%20mostly%20test%20learning%20with%20AI%2C%20so%20the%20two%20literatures%20are%20not%20directly%20comparable.%20A%20continuity-with-adaptation%20framework%20is%20offered%20as%20a%20hypothesis%2C%20not%20a%20finding%3A%20hands-on%2C%20teacher-guided%20work%20is%20the%20common%20thread%2C%20and%20generative%20AI%20adds%20the%20need%20to%20judge%20fluent%20but%20unreliable%20output%20and%20to%20attend%20to%20privacy%20and%20age%20limits.%20Controlled%20studies%20have%20appeared%20only%20recently%2C%20cluster%20in%20a%20few%20settings%2C%20and%20none%20of%20those%20identified%20report%20a%20delayed%20follow-up.%20Early%20childhood%20was%20found%20to%20be%20underexplored.%20The%20review%20closes%20with%20a%20research%20agenda%20and%20cautious%20suggestions%20for%20teachers.%22%2C%22date%22%3A%222026-10-31%22%2C%22section%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partNumber%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partTitle%22%3A%22%22%2C%22DOI%22%3A%2210.5281%5C%2Fzenodo.23585274%22%2C%22citationKey%22%3A%22%22%2C%22url%22%3A%22https%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fijtie.com%5C%2Fwp-content%5C%2Fuploads%5C%2F2026%5C%2F10%5C%2FN40377.pdf%22%2C%22PMID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMCID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22ISSN%22%3A%222820-7521%22%2C%22language%22%3A%22%22%2C%22collections%22%3A%5B%22QWYM8LHH%22%5D%2C%22dateModified%22%3A%222026-10-30T01%3A16%3A10Z%22%7D%7D%5D%7D
Nyatefe, A.A. et al. (2026) “Primary AI literacy pedagogy before and after generative AI: A critical review,” The International Journal of Technology, Innovation, and Education, 4(3), pp. 334–354. Available at: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.23585274.
16359756
{16359756:VVVIAUZZ}
1
vancouver-author-date
50
default
2864
https://ijtie.com/wp-content/plugins/zotpress/
%7B%22status%22%3A%22success%22%2C%22updateneeded%22%3Afalse%2C%22instance%22%3Afalse%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22request_last%22%3A0%2C%22request_next%22%3A0%2C%22used_cache%22%3Atrue%7D%2C%22data%22%3A%5B%7B%22key%22%3A%22VVVIAUZZ%22%2C%22library%22%3A%7B%22id%22%3A16359756%7D%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22creatorSummary%22%3A%22Nyatefe%20et%20al.%22%2C%22parsedDate%22%3A%222026-10-31%22%2C%22numChildren%22%3A0%7D%2C%22bib%22%3A%22%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-bib-body%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bline-height%3A%201.35%3B%20padding-left%3A%201em%3B%20text-indent%3A-1em%3B%26quot%3B%26gt%3B%5Cn%20%20%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-entry%26quot%3B%26gt%3BNyatefe%20AA%2C%20Agbogah%20IM%2C%20Akwandoh%20E%2C%20Yeboah%20E%2C%20Peprah%20E%2C%20Nyatefe%20SA%2C%20et%20al.%20Primary%20AI%20literacy%20pedagogy%20before%20and%20after%20generative%20AI%3A%20A%20critical%20review.%20The%20International%20Journal%20of%20Technology%2C%20Innovation%2C%20and%20Education%20%5BInternet%5D.%202026%20Oct%2031%3B4%283%29%3A334%26%23×2013%3B54.%20Available%20from%3A%20%26lt%3Ba%20class%3D%26%23039%3Bzp-ItemURL%26%23039%3B%20href%3D%26%23039%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fijtie.com%5C%2Fwp-content%5C%2Fuploads%5C%2F2026%5C%2F10%5C%2FN40377.pdf%26%23039%3B%26gt%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fijtie.com%5C%2Fwp-content%5C%2Fuploads%5C%2F2026%5C%2F10%5C%2FN40377.pdf%26lt%3B%5C%2Fa%26gt%3B%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%5Cn%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%22%2C%22data%22%3A%7B%22itemType%22%3A%22journalArticle%22%2C%22title%22%3A%22Primary%20AI%20literacy%20pedagogy%20before%20and%20after%20generative%20AI%3A%20A%20critical%20review%22%2C%22creators%22%3A%5B%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Akorfa%20Aku%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Isaac%20Mawuena%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Agbogah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Emmanuel%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Akwandoh%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Emmanuel%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Yeboah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Enock%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Peprah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Sitsofe%20Akosua%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Madeakpe%20Gertrude%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%5D%2C%22abstractNote%22%3A%22Two%20recent%20reviews%20of%20AI%20literacy%20in%20primary%20education%20closed%20their%20searches%20in%202024%2C%20before%20most%20classroom%20research%20on%20generative%20AI%20had%20appeared.%20This%20critical%20review%20narrows%20that%20gap.%20It%20takes%20the%20pre-2023%20literature%20from%20those%20reviews%20and%20adds%20studies%20published%20through%20October%202026%20in%20which%20children%20roughly%20aged%20six%20to%20twelve%20used%20generative%20AI%20tools%20such%20as%20ChatGPT.%20Twenty%20empirical%20papers%20are%20examined%3A%20eight%20from%20before%202023%2C%20two%20on%20children%5Cu2019s%20conceptions%20of%20AI%2C%20and%20ten%20on%20generative%20AI%20%28nine%20independent%20samples%29.%20The%20synthesis%20covers%20pedagogical%20approaches%2C%20learning%20outcomes%2C%20assessment%2C%20and%20challenges.%20Earlier%20studies%20mostly%20taught%20children%20about%20AI%2C%20while%20the%20generative-AI%20studies%20mostly%20test%20learning%20with%20AI%2C%20so%20the%20two%20literatures%20are%20not%20directly%20comparable.%20A%20continuity-with-adaptation%20framework%20is%20offered%20as%20a%20hypothesis%2C%20not%20a%20finding%3A%20hands-on%2C%20teacher-guided%20work%20is%20the%20common%20thread%2C%20and%20generative%20AI%20adds%20the%20need%20to%20judge%20fluent%20but%20unreliable%20output%20and%20to%20attend%20to%20privacy%20and%20age%20limits.%20Controlled%20studies%20have%20appeared%20only%20recently%2C%20cluster%20in%20a%20few%20settings%2C%20and%20none%20of%20those%20identified%20report%20a%20delayed%20follow-up.%20Early%20childhood%20was%20found%20to%20be%20underexplored.%20The%20review%20closes%20with%20a%20research%20agenda%20and%20cautious%20suggestions%20for%20teachers.%22%2C%22date%22%3A%222026-10-31%22%2C%22section%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partNumber%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partTitle%22%3A%22%22%2C%22DOI%22%3A%2210.5281%5C%2Fzenodo.23585274%22%2C%22citationKey%22%3A%22%22%2C%22url%22%3A%22https%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fijtie.com%5C%2Fwp-content%5C%2Fuploads%5C%2F2026%5C%2F10%5C%2FN40377.pdf%22%2C%22PMID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMCID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22ISSN%22%3A%222820-7521%22%2C%22language%22%3A%22%22%2C%22collections%22%3A%5B%22QWYM8LHH%22%5D%2C%22dateModified%22%3A%222026-10-30T01%3A16%3A10Z%22%7D%7D%5D%7D
Nyatefe AA, Agbogah IM, Akwandoh E, Yeboah E, Peprah E, Nyatefe SA, et al. Primary AI literacy pedagogy before and after generative AI: A critical review. The International Journal of Technology, Innovation, and Education [Internet]. 2026 Oct 31;4(3):334–54. Available from: https://ijtie.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/10/N40377.pdf
16359756
{16359756:VVVIAUZZ}
1
apa
50
default
2864
https://ijtie.com/wp-content/plugins/zotpress/
%7B%22status%22%3A%22success%22%2C%22updateneeded%22%3Afalse%2C%22instance%22%3Afalse%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22request_last%22%3A0%2C%22request_next%22%3A0%2C%22used_cache%22%3Atrue%7D%2C%22data%22%3A%5B%7B%22key%22%3A%22VVVIAUZZ%22%2C%22library%22%3A%7B%22id%22%3A16359756%7D%2C%22meta%22%3A%7B%22creatorSummary%22%3A%22Nyatefe%20et%20al.%22%2C%22parsedDate%22%3A%222026-10-31%22%2C%22numChildren%22%3A0%7D%2C%22bib%22%3A%22%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-bib-body%26quot%3B%20style%3D%26quot%3Bline-height%3A%202%3B%20padding-left%3A%201em%3B%20text-indent%3A-1em%3B%26quot%3B%26gt%3B%5Cn%20%20%26lt%3Bdiv%20class%3D%26quot%3Bcsl-entry%26quot%3B%26gt%3BNyatefe%2C%20A.%20A.%2C%20Agbogah%2C%20I.%20M.%2C%20Akwandoh%2C%20E.%2C%20Yeboah%2C%20E.%2C%20Peprah%2C%20E.%2C%20Nyatefe%2C%20S.%20A.%2C%20%26amp%3B%20Nyatefe%2C%20M.%20G.%20%282026%29.%20Primary%20AI%20literacy%20pedagogy%20before%20and%20after%20generative%20AI%3A%20A%20critical%20review.%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3BThe%20International%20Journal%20of%20Technology%2C%20Innovation%2C%20and%20Education%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%2C%20%26lt%3Bi%26gt%3B4%26lt%3B%5C%2Fi%26gt%3B%283%29%2C%20334%26%23×2013%3B354.%20%26lt%3Ba%20class%3D%26%23039%3Bzp-DOIURL%26%23039%3B%20href%3D%26%23039%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.5281%5C%2Fzenodo.23585274%26%23039%3B%26gt%3Bhttps%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fdoi.org%5C%2F10.5281%5C%2Fzenodo.23585274%26lt%3B%5C%2Fa%26gt%3B%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%5Cn%26lt%3B%5C%2Fdiv%26gt%3B%22%2C%22data%22%3A%7B%22itemType%22%3A%22journalArticle%22%2C%22title%22%3A%22Primary%20AI%20literacy%20pedagogy%20before%20and%20after%20generative%20AI%3A%20A%20critical%20review%22%2C%22creators%22%3A%5B%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Akorfa%20Aku%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Isaac%20Mawuena%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Agbogah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Emmanuel%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Akwandoh%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Emmanuel%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Yeboah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Enock%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Peprah%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Sitsofe%20Akosua%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%2C%7B%22creatorType%22%3A%22author%22%2C%22firstName%22%3A%22Madeakpe%20Gertrude%22%2C%22lastName%22%3A%22Nyatefe%22%7D%5D%2C%22abstractNote%22%3A%22Two%20recent%20reviews%20of%20AI%20literacy%20in%20primary%20education%20closed%20their%20searches%20in%202024%2C%20before%20most%20classroom%20research%20on%20generative%20AI%20had%20appeared.%20This%20critical%20review%20narrows%20that%20gap.%20It%20takes%20the%20pre-2023%20literature%20from%20those%20reviews%20and%20adds%20studies%20published%20through%20October%202026%20in%20which%20children%20roughly%20aged%20six%20to%20twelve%20used%20generative%20AI%20tools%20such%20as%20ChatGPT.%20Twenty%20empirical%20papers%20are%20examined%3A%20eight%20from%20before%202023%2C%20two%20on%20children%5Cu2019s%20conceptions%20of%20AI%2C%20and%20ten%20on%20generative%20AI%20%28nine%20independent%20samples%29.%20The%20synthesis%20covers%20pedagogical%20approaches%2C%20learning%20outcomes%2C%20assessment%2C%20and%20challenges.%20Earlier%20studies%20mostly%20taught%20children%20about%20AI%2C%20while%20the%20generative-AI%20studies%20mostly%20test%20learning%20with%20AI%2C%20so%20the%20two%20literatures%20are%20not%20directly%20comparable.%20A%20continuity-with-adaptation%20framework%20is%20offered%20as%20a%20hypothesis%2C%20not%20a%20finding%3A%20hands-on%2C%20teacher-guided%20work%20is%20the%20common%20thread%2C%20and%20generative%20AI%20adds%20the%20need%20to%20judge%20fluent%20but%20unreliable%20output%20and%20to%20attend%20to%20privacy%20and%20age%20limits.%20Controlled%20studies%20have%20appeared%20only%20recently%2C%20cluster%20in%20a%20few%20settings%2C%20and%20none%20of%20those%20identified%20report%20a%20delayed%20follow-up.%20Early%20childhood%20was%20found%20to%20be%20underexplored.%20The%20review%20closes%20with%20a%20research%20agenda%20and%20cautious%20suggestions%20for%20teachers.%22%2C%22date%22%3A%222026-10-31%22%2C%22section%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partNumber%22%3A%22%22%2C%22partTitle%22%3A%22%22%2C%22DOI%22%3A%2210.5281%5C%2Fzenodo.23585274%22%2C%22citationKey%22%3A%22%22%2C%22url%22%3A%22https%3A%5C%2F%5C%2Fijtie.com%5C%2Fwp-content%5C%2Fuploads%5C%2F2026%5C%2F10%5C%2FN40377.pdf%22%2C%22PMID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22PMCID%22%3A%22%22%2C%22ISSN%22%3A%222820-7521%22%2C%22language%22%3A%22%22%2C%22collections%22%3A%5B%22QWYM8LHH%22%5D%2C%22dateModified%22%3A%222026-10-30T01%3A16%3A10Z%22%7D%7D%5D%7D
Nyatefe, A. A., Agbogah, I. M., Akwandoh, E., Yeboah, E., Peprah, E., Nyatefe, S. A., & Nyatefe, M. G. (2026). Primary AI literacy pedagogy before and after generative AI: A critical review. The International Journal of Technology, Innovation, and Education, 4(3), 334–354. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.23585274
References
Alfarwan, A. (2025). Generative AI use in K–12 education: A systematic review. Frontiers in Education, 10, Article 1647573. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2025.1647573
Aravantinos, S., Lavidas, K., Voulgari, I., Papadakis, S., Karalis, T., & Komis, V. (2024). Educational approaches with AI in primary school settings: A systematic review of the literature available in Scopus. Education Sciences, 14(7), Article 744. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14070744
Balantekin, Y. (2026). Improving students’ reading, comprehension, and reading motivation through texts generated from their prompts using ChatGPT-4: A mixed-method study. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 13, Article 9. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-025-06265-x
Casal-Otero, L., Catalá, A., Fernández-Morante, C., Taboada, M., Cebreiro, B., & Barro, S. (2023). AI literacy in K–12: A systematic literature review. International Journal of STEM Education, 10, Article 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-023-00418-7
Druga, S., & Ko, A. J. (2021). How do children’s perceptions of machine intelligence change when training and coding smart programs? In Proceedings of the 20th ACM Interaction Design and Children Conference (pp. 49–61). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3459990.3460712
Han, A., Zhou, X., Cai, Z., Han, S., Ko, R., Corrigan, S., & Peppler, K. A. (2024). Teachers, parents, and students’ perspectives on integrating generative AI into elementary literacy education. In Proceedings of the 2024 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (Article 678). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3613904.3642438
Jauhiainen, J. S., & Garagorry Guerra, A. (2023). Generative AI and ChatGPT in school children’s education: Evidence from a school lesson. Sustainability, 15(18), Article 14025. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151814025
Jauhiainen, J. S., & Garagorry Guerra, A. (2024). Generative AI and education: Dynamic personalization of pupils’ school learning material with ChatGPT. Frontiers in Education, 9, Article 1288723. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1288723
Kızıltaş, Y. (2025). Integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into primary school students’ writing skills: The impact of ChatGPT on creative writing and writing self-efficacy. Journal of Educational Computing Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/07356331251365187
Kızıltaş, Y. (2026). Artificial intelligence (AI) in primary school classrooms: ChatGPT’s text summarization ability and its impact on attitudes towards summarization. Education and Information Technologies, 31(14), 6091–6118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-026-14029-6
Melsión, G. I., Torre, I., Vidal, E., & Leite, I. (2021). Using explainability to help children understand gender bias in AI. In Proceedings of the 20th ACM Interaction Design and Children Conference (pp. 87–99). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3459990.3460719
Mertala, P., & Fagerlund, J. (2024). Finnish 5th and 6th graders’ misconceptions about artificial intelligence. International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction, 39, Article 100630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcci.2023.100630
Mertala, P., Fagerlund, J., Lehtoranta, J., Mattila, E., & Korhonen, T. (2024). Finnish primary school students’ conceptions of machine learning [Preprint]. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2402.09582
Ng, D. T. K., Leung, J. K. L., Chu, S. K. W., & Qiao, M. S. (2021). Conceptualizing AI literacy: An exploratory review. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 2, Article 100041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2021.100041
Ng, D. T. K., Luo, W., Chan, H. M. Y., & Chu, S. K. W. (2022). Using digital story writing as a pedagogy to develop AI literacy among primary students. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 3, Article 100054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100054
OpenAI. (2026). Terms of use (effective January 1, 2026). https://www.openai.com/terms
Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child (H. Weaver, Trans.). Basic Books. (Original work published 1966)
Relmasira, S. C., Lai, Y. C., & Donaldson, J. P. (2023). Fostering AI literacy in elementary science, technology, engineering, art, and mathematics (STEAM) education in the age of generative AI. Sustainability, 15(18), Article 13595. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151813595
Rodríguez-García, J. D., Moreno-León, J., Román-González, M., & Robles, G. (2021). Evaluation of an online intervention to teach artificial intelligence with LearningML to 10–16-year-old students. In Proceedings of the 52nd ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education (pp. 177–183). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3408877.3432393
Shamir, G., & Levin, I. (2021). Neural network construction practices in elementary school. KI – Künstliche Intelligenz, 35(2), 181–189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13218-021-00729-3
Shamir, G., & Levin, I. (2022). Teaching machine learning in elementary school. International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction, 31, Article 100415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcci.2021.100415
Song, Y., Kim, J., Xing, W., Liu, Z., Li, C., & Oh, H. (2025). Elementary school students’ and teachers’ perceptions toward creative mathematical writing with generative AI. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 58(3), 615–637. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2025.2455057
Touretzky, D., Gardner-McCune, C., Martin, F., & Seehorn, D. (2019). Envisioning AI for K–12: What should every child know about AI? Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 33(1), 9795–9799. https://doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v33i01.33019795
Vartiainen, H., Tedre, M., & Jormanainen, I. (2023). Co-creating digital art with generative AI in K–9 education: Socio-material insights. International Journal of Education Through Art, 19(3), 405–423. https://doi.org/10.1386/eta_00143_1
Vartiainen, H., Tedre, M., & Valtonen, T. (2020). Learning machine learning with very young children: Who is teaching whom? International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction, 25, Article 100182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcci.2020.100182
Voulgari, I., Zammit, M., Stouraitis, E., Liapis, A., & Yannakakis, G. N. (2021). Learn to machine learn: Designing a game-based approach for teaching machine learning to primary and secondary education students. In Proceedings of the 20th ACM Interaction Design and Children Conference (pp. 593–598). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3459990.3465176
Yang, Y., Liu, J., Keane, T., Sun, D., & Yang, Y. (2025). Design and evaluation of ChatGPT-MWPS: An AI-enhanced learning system for improving primary students’ mathematical word problem solving. Smart Learning Environments, 12, Article 68. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-025-00419-9
Yim, I. H. Y. (2024). A critical review of teaching and learning artificial intelligence (AI) literacy: Developing an intelligence-based AI literacy framework for primary school education. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 7, Article 100319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100319
Yim, I. H. Y., & Su, J. (2025). Artificial intelligence literacy education in primary schools: A review. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 35(5), 2175–2204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-025-09979-w
About the authors
- Akorfa Aku Nyatefe is a postgraduate researcher pursuing a Master’s degree in Modern Educational Technology at Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology (NUIST), China. Her research interests include artificial intelligence literacy pedagogy, generative AI classroom integration, and equitable EdTech adaptation for Global South contexts. As principal author, she led the literature synthesis and framework development for this study.
nyatefeakorfa@gmail.com
↩︎ - Isaac Mawuena Agbogah is an academic researcher and entrepreneur with a background in Information Science and Business Administration. He holds a Bachelor’s degree in Information Science from the University of Ghana and is pursuing an MBA at Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology (NUIST), China. His research interests include investment strategies, consumer behavior, database management, artificial intelligence, business and data analytics, information systems, the digital economy, e-commerce, fintech, and social media. His research explores how emerging technologies, digital platforms, and data-driven strategies influence organizational performance, consumer decision-making, and sustainable business practices.
isaacagbogah1@gmail.com
↩︎ - Emmanuel Akwandoh is a PhD candidate specializing in humanitarian logistics and operations research. His research focuses on applying advanced optimization and decision-support methods to complex humanitarian and disaster management problems. His work explores multi-objective optimization, evolutionary algorithms, robust optimization, and reinforcement learning for improving resource allocation, emergency response, supply chain resilience, disaster preparedness, and risk-informed decision-making. His research interests also encompass correlated disaster risks and the design of adaptive and resilient logistics systems in resource-constrained environments.
emmanuelakwandoh@outlook.com
↩︎ - Emmanuel Yeboah is affiliated with the Faculty of Geographical Science and Engineering, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan Province, China. His research interests include remote sensing, geomatics, environmental monitoring, spatial analysis, and applications of geospatial technologies in resource and disaster management.
emmanuelyeboah@henu.edu.cn
↩︎ - Enock Peprah is a doctoral researcher in Management Science and Engineering at NUIST, working at the intersection of sustainable finance, development finance, and financial intermediation. He holds a Master of Finance from NUIST, where his thesis examined the nonlinear and spatial effects of capital market liberalization on green total factor productivity. His empirical work applies panel econometric methods, including difference-in-differences, structural equation modelling, and spatial techniques, to questions of firm financing, ESG performance, and financial development in emerging economies. A chartered member of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Ghana, he brings eight years of public-sector financial management experience to his research on how financing instruments shape development outcomes.
202651240004@nuist.edu.cn
↩︎ - Sitsofe Akosua Nyatefe is an English teacher at The New Jerusalem School, Accra, Ghana. She holds a BA in Education (English) from the University of Ghana, Legon, and a DELF A2 certification in French from Alliance Française. Her teaching experience spans early childhood, basic, and secondary education, and she has served as a teaching assistant at the University of Ghana, contributing to academic instruction, student assessment, and research support. She also works as an independent proofreader and researcher, assisting with academic writing, manuscript preparation, and project development. Her research interests include educational development, language learning, adolescent cognitive and behavioral outcomes, and educational technology integration.
datruthsheltah@gmail.com
↩︎ - Madeakpe Gertrude Nyatefe is a fashion and design facilitator at South Labone Girls Technical Institute, Labone, and a TVET and girl child advocate. She is pursuing postgraduate studies in Education at the University of Education, Winneba. Her interests include curriculum development for TVET, sustainable fashion, and the integration of AI and digital tools into fashion design education. She seeks to bridge traditional craftsmanship and modern educational technology.
madeezklothing@gmail.com ↩︎
