The International Journal of Technology, Innovation, and Education

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Volume 4, 2026 – Issue 2

Virtual and Augmented Reality for Bridging Vocational Skills Gaps: A Systematic Review and its Implications for Tanzania

Eliya Ndiwu 1 * and Gabriel Mathew Athumani 2

1 Vocational Education and Training Authority, Tanzania

2 Dar es Salaam University College of Education, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

* Corresponding author: ndiwuelliya@gmail.com

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21727795

Abstract

The gap between vocational education and training (VET) provision and the actual requirements of both employers and the job market gives Tanzania great concern in the context of workforce development. In industry 4.0 revolution era, traditional systems of VET training do not prepare the graduates for the requirements of the employers and the labour market at large. Therefore, the use of Virtual and Augmented Reality (VR and AR) is deemed as a panacea to this skills mismatch. This study employed integrated design of systematic review of literature aiming to explore the prospects and hurdles of using VR and AR on narrowing VET skill gaps and matching training outcomes to industry requirements. The review included 35 empirical research works published between 2015 and 2025 in SCOPUS, SPRINGER and ERIC platforms using the PRISMA 2020 method. This study brings together the global and regional evidences on the pedagogical, institutional, and policy-oriented aspects of VET and immersive technologies. The results show that the use of VR and AR in VET helps learners assimilate skills better through simulations of workplace experiences, thus bridging the gap between the industry and VET institutions. However, the adoption of such technologies in Tanzania is hampered by the high costs of the technologies, poor infrastructure, and insufficient preparation of trainers. The study suggests public-private partnerships, innovation ecosystems, and targeted capacity building for the sustainable incorporation of VR and AR technologies in transforming VET systems in Sub-Saharan Africa including Tanzania.

Keywords: virtual reality, augmented reality, immersive technologies, VET, Tanzania, skill gap 

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Published

2026/06/30

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Section

Research Papers

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Ndiwu, E., & Athumani, G. M. (2026). Virtual and augmented reality for bridging vocational skills gaps: A systematic review and its implications for Tanzania. The International Journal of Technology, Innovation, and Education, 4(2), 383–407. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.21727795

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Ndiwu, Eliya, and Gabriel Mathew Athumani. 2026. “Virtual and Augmented Reality for Bridging Vocational Skills Gaps: A Systematic Review and Its Implications for Tanzania.” The International Journal of Technology, Innovation, and Education 4 (2): 383–407. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.21727795.

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Ndiwu, Eliya, and Gabriel Mathew Athumani. “Virtual and Augmented Reality for Bridging Vocational Skills Gaps: A Systematic Review and Its Implications for Tanzania.” The International Journal of Technology, Innovation, and Education, vol. 4, no. 2, July 2026, pp. 383–407, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.21727795.

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E. Ndiwu and G. M. Athumani, “Virtual and augmented reality for bridging vocational skills gaps: A systematic review and its implications for Tanzania,” The International Journal of Technology, Innovation, and Education, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 383–407, Jul. 2026, doi: 10.5281/zenodo.21727795.

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Ndiwu, E. and Athumani, G.M. (2026) “Virtual and augmented reality for bridging vocational skills gaps: A systematic review and its implications for Tanzania,” The International Journal of Technology, Innovation, and Education, 4(2), pp. 383–407. Available at: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.21727795.

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Ndiwu E, Athumani GM. Virtual and augmented reality for bridging vocational skills gaps: A systematic review and its implications for Tanzania. The International Journal of Technology, Innovation, and Education [Internet]. 2026 July 30;4(2):383–407. Available from: https://ijtie.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/07/N40262.pdf

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Ndiwu, E., & Athumani, G. M. (2026). Virtual and augmented reality for bridging vocational skills gaps: A systematic review and its implications for Tanzania. The International Journal of Technology, Innovation, and Education, 4(2), 383–407. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.21727795

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About the authors
  1. Eliya Ndiwu is a PhD candidate in Educational Management at Huazhong University of Science and Technology in China. He is principal vocational tutor at Vocational Education and Training Authority, Tanzania. He holds Master of Education in Administration, Planning and Policy Studies, Bachelor of Arts with Education and Diploma in Education. His research area is Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET). He has presented and participated in several national and international conferences and seminars on TVET and research methods.
    ndiwuelliya@naciridevgmail-com
    ↩︎
  2. Gabriel Mathew Athumani is a PhD student in Educational Psychology at Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST) in Wuhan, China. He is an assistant lecturer in the department of Educational Psychology and Curriculum Studies, University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam University College of Education (DUCE) in Tanzania. He holds Master of Arts in Applied Social Psychology and Bachelor of Arts with Education. His research focuses are guidance and counselling, educational psychology and mental health.
    gabriel.athumani@duce.ac.tz
    ↩︎
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